COULD REGULAR VIDEO GAME USE IN SCHOOLS BE BENEFICIAL TO STUDENTS?
Video games are an extremely popular form of entertainment across many demographics. Modern games and gaming systems are all-but ubiquitous in modern homes with children or young adults. In keeping with this rise in popularity, so too have concerns over the effects of video games on children risen. A frequently espoused concern of parents and teachers alike is that video games are imparting dangerous messages and ideas to those who play them; Video games are a "bad influence" on younger generations (Barnett, 2014, pp.15). However, it is becoming increasingly apparent that not only video games not have a true impact that comes from the content of the game, but that many modern games use complex systems designed to rapidly educate players. Whereas one might expect games to educate an active audience, much like with television and film, it has been shown that a video game "requires and depends on 'activity' " (Catch em all art. p.9).
In other words, in order for a game to function, the user [Child] must interact and be active within the game. This requirement lends itself neatly to the revised version of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Furthermore, the increasingly complex and widespread virtual game worlds themselves require a learning of internal rules and systems; Games create and use their own semiotics that must be mastered in order to progress.
We believe that video games are, by necessity, an educating medium. With no guarantee that a user will be experienced in playing video games before commencing their play, games are designed to intuitively impart knowledge to their users. Unlike older mediums like print or screen, video games must carry with them the means to teach a consumer. Therefore, it follows that video games can be harnessed to educate a child in a manner that is not only intuitive, but appealing. James Paul Gee perhaps summarises it best:
"Good video games reflect, in their design, good principles of learning"
According to the revised version of Bloom's Taxonomy (Sosniak, 1994) the key to a child's learning is the acquisition of the abilities to remember, understand, apply, analyse, evaluate, and create. In other words, a child must be able to define the subject (Remember), be able to classify it (Understand), be able to demonstrate what they have learnt (Apply), be able to compare and contrast it with other objects or data (Analyse), be able to argue for or against its use (Evaluate), and be able to build or construct something new from it (Create).
When these criteria are met, a child is said to able to "transfer learning" (Barnett, p.16). However, in the essay, "Virtual to Real Life - Assessing Transfer of Learning from Video Games", Susan Barnett questions the methods of testing this transfer. In other words, she asks how it is possible to accurately measure a child's ability to transfer a learned lesson.
Barnett highlights a study that found many children tested on their ability to transfer a learned skill to a different field required direct or indirect prompting to attempt to use skills learned in a different environment (p.18). However, it is certainly clear that, in order to use skills in a scenario different to the one in which they initially learned it, they must first fully understand it. It is impossible for a child to use skills they have learnt until they have met each of the criteria in Bloom's Revised Taxonomy.
Barnett also raises another interesting, and crucial, point in her essay concerning the environment in which a child originally learns a new skill. In the essay, the belief is raised that the context in which a skill or lesson is learned is irrelevant. Regardless of whenever or wherever a skill is learnt, it is immediately applicable or transferrable to a new environment. However, research has shown that the opposite is actually true; the context in which a lesson is learnt heavily affects its transferability (p.19).
Contextual similarity, when assessing a subject's "learning transfer", could be subdivided into six different domains, referred to as Knowledge, Physical, Temporal, Functional, Social, Modality (p.20). In terms of video games and education, the Physical, Functional, and Modality Domains are the most relevant in terms of assessing the suitability of using video games to aid in educating children.
The different Domains affecting the transfer of learnt skills are markedly different from one another, as should be expected. However, due to the nature of the Physical, Functional, and Modality Domains, they become increasingly relevant when considered alongside their counterparts. This is not to say the Knowledge, Temporal, and Social Domains are not involved in learning via video games, but simply that they are less crucial.
The Physical Domain concerns the actual location where the original lesson takes place; It raises the question of how a child might learn or apply something learnt in a dramatically different environment to which they learnt it. For example, teaching a child to "say no to drugs" in the safety of their classroom is a far cry from that of a party.
The Functional Domain relates to the original use of the skills learnt and how they might be applied in a different context. Barnett uses the example of looking for a screwdriver when a coin could fill the same purpose of installing a screw;
"Academic learning may be tied in our mind to academic situations and not readily transfer to [or from] work or play"
Thirdly, the Modality Domain covers the medium or format through which a skill is learnt. For example, a child learns a skill in a written medium like a book or an article. The child is then able to use that skill in a different situation.
When considering these three Domains, it is easy to see how video games relate to the transfer of learnt skills.
The playing of video games mostly takes place outside of school with skills that a primarily tied to play and entertainment in a medium that is dramatically different to that most often used to test students' abilities. Thus, by integrating regular video game use into schools both the Physical and Functional Domains are affected; the playing of video games is moved into a typically educational arena, thereby affecting the implicit function of the skills obtained. In other words, children will recognise they are playing video games in an education-centric environment and therefore be aware they are playing for a teaching purpose.
However, a video game's appeal is not a given; It has to be well designed and relatively visually appealing at the very least in order for a user to want to play it (Hodent, 2014, pp.147). Equally, it must be recognisable as a game with intuitive mechanics: "[in order] to be enjoyable and allow a playful learning experience, an educational video game has to be usable and 'flow-able'" (pp.152) Simply put, video games must motivate children to continue playing and, therefore, learning. In the essay, Hodent further states, "If what one learns is engaging, interesting, and meaningful, chances are that one will learn it and apply it better than if the learning content is not meaningful or interesting" (pp.153).
A prime example of children learning in an appealing video game can be taken from the extremely popular game, Pokémon. When analysed using Bloom's Revised Taxonomy, it is clear that the Pokémon games, knowingly or not, follow a clear education-centric or learning focussed path. In order to properly compete and progress in the game, the player must know the different types of Pokémon and understand how to train them before applying their knowledge in a 'battle' in order to win, based on which Pokémon is best suited to fight against the other. The player's knowledge is further used to analyse a wild Pokémon, and attempt to determine their course of actions by evaluating the situation; The child must decide not only what 'type' of Pokémon a new one is, but use this information to decide whether to 'run', 'fight', or attempt to 'catch' it. Finally, the user creates or compiles a team of six Pokémon with which to explore and progress in the game's world. Using their experiences, the user typically attempts to create a well-balance team that can compete in a variety of environments. Through Pokémon, it is clear that Bloom's goals can be used as an effective guide to teaching or, rather, for learning.
However, as stated earlier, a child must want to play the video game, especially if it is to be an effective educator. According to Buckingham and Sefton-Green's article on the Pokémon phenomenon, the point is raised that despite the protagonist's gender being male, the game still appeals to boys and girls alike. This appeal to both genders is attributed to the protagonist's asexuality, alongside the game's overall incorporation of "Stereotypically masculine and feminine values" (Buckingham and Sefton-Green, 2003, pp.383). Thus, in order to appeal across the broader student body, while a video game may fulfil Bloom's Taxonomy, it must also be appealing to as many students as possible. This kind of appeal is even more crucial still to enabling children to learn.
A critical part of a child engaging in a video game relies on their ability to identify with the character or characters within. Gee claims that, as an element of learning, children must associate with an identity, a "virtual identity" (Gee, pp.54). Gee uses an example of a student in a science classroom to demonstrate his claims. According to Gee, by using and being exposed to terms and phrases typically used in a scientific environment, children assume the role of a "virtual" scientist (pp.60). Gee argues that the link between this "virtual identity" and the "real world identity" is crucial to establishing a lesson. "If children cannot or will not make bridges between...identities...learning is imperilled" (pp.61). A child must identify or associate themselves with the character or their virtual identity in order for the game to properly have an educational effect.
Video games are a deeply embedded, extremely popular, recreational aspect of modern society. While they are primarily used for recreational purposes, it is also undeniably clear that there is potential for there to be highly effective educational games created for children, with the purpose of aiding in their academic education.
By creating games that are fundamentally games rather than educational lessons, game creators and teachers alike can help children acquire skills However, academic education is extremely complex and multi-faceted, meaning this process can be difficult to implement.
Regardless, the French philosopher, Jean Rousseau perhaps encapsulates the argument for the incorporation of video games into education best: "The great secret of education is to make the exercises of the body and of the mind always serve as a recreation for each other".
WHAT'S DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AUSTRALIA'S ANZAC DAY AND THE UNITED STATES' MEMORIAL DAY AND VETERANS DAY (ASIDE FROM THE OBVIOUS)?
ANZAC (Anzac) Day and its celebrations in Australia have reached a point where it is impossible to deny its historical and cultural importance to the general Australian population. Every year thousands of Australians attend hundreds of Dawn Services around the country commemorating the Gallipoli Campaign and Australian and New Zealand soldiers who have since served their respective countries together.
Equally important to their own national psyche, are the two American holidays, Memorial Day, formerly known as Decoration Day, and Veterans Day. During these national holidays, American citizens and soldiers recognise and remember those who have died at war and those who have served in the military, respectively, for the United States of America. All three days have been recognised as having a significant cultural, historical, and, therefore, political importance for the two countries involved, but also will have striking similarities in their history and backgrounds. In this essay, the history and development of these days into public holidays will be examined, as well as look at whether it is fair to say these days were sites of cultural events before being declared public holidays. Furthermore, this essay will examine the nationalistic and patriotic aspect of these holidays and how it can relate to, or emanate from, military service.
Anzac Day is an important historical focal point of Australian identity, culture, and global function. The holiday is recognised nationally on the twenty fifth of April each year, with the public holiday held either on the day itself, or the next Monday. On the day every year, there are multiple memorial services and celebrations held around the country. From Dawn Services around the country to the annual "ANZAC Day Clash" Australian football game between the Essendon and Collingwood football clubs (Fitzsimmons, 2008; Lenten, 2011), the level of participation in Anzac Day related events signifies the high level of cultural and social importance the day holds for the general populace.
The twenty-fifth of April is Anzac Day in recognition of the first ANZAC troops' landing at Gallipoli in World War One (WW1). On this day, the event, despite heavy losses and eventual defeat of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, is lauded as a defining moment in Australian nationality, a clear turning point in the national psyche where after an Australian citizen would be able to consider themselves as Australian, rather than a British subject very far from home (Macleod, 2002). It is frequently claimed by journalists, authors, and politicians alike that the Australian sense of identity was born during the Gallipoli campaign between the Australian and New Zealand soldiers, as were the "Australian" ideals of "endurance, courage, ingenuity, good humour, and ....mateship" (Stanley, 2014). The original ANZAC soldiers were seen as the prototypical Australians, wherein the previously mentioned qualities were said to abound.
It is undeniable that Anzac Day was, post WW1, a time for remembrance and mourning for soldiers served in the Australian or New Zealand military, regardless of whether they survived the conflict. With this understanding of the event, the traditions of a Dawn Service, marches, memorial services, and minute's silence are seen through the lens of mourning and recognition or respect for the service provided by the ANZAC soldiers.
In other words, Anzac day was "a moment to recognise and acknowledge the sacrifice with services and simple acts of remembrance" (Watt, 2014). However, modern day celebrations have a nation-centric approach to the day, defining it as a major point of development in the national Australian psyche, despite the involvement of New Zealand troops alongside Australians. As such, whereas the phrase "Lest we forget" may have originally meant 'lest we forget the sacrifices and horrors of war and this failed campaign', now it could be interpreted as 'lest we forget what it means to be an Australian'.
While both definitions may be relevant to many Australians now, the addition of another interpretation indicates a cultural development that has been fostered by government-funded memorial services and patriotic speeches. In essence, Anzac Day is fundamentally a cultural event, with rituals that have a distinct focus on heritage.
In the United States (US), there is also a high level of participation for both Memorial Day and Veterans Day events. In every year, the US has eleven national public holidays, all of which are considered "patriotic celebrations" (Stathis, 1999).
However, Veterans Day and Memorial Day are the only days specifically to honour American military service. While the US celebrates the fourth of July as the anniversary of their independence from the British Empire through military means, this particular day is for celebrating their nationhood, not the means by which it was achieved.
It is also important to note that each state declares its own holidays, neither the US President nor the Congress possess the power to declare, unilaterally, a day a public holiday (Stathis). As such, the national declarations are simply a matter of formalising the events and perhaps helping to foster the national sense of unity. Each Day has their own ceremonies and traditions in which citizens, soldiers, and politicians alike participate.
Decoration Day, now known as Memorial Day, was declared a public holiday in eighteen eighty-eight, possibly due to "a sizable number of federal employees ... who desired to participate in Memorial [Decoration] Day ceremonies" (Stathis). The creation allowed federal employees to partake in the ceremonies while simultaneously not missing a day's wages. While this holiday initially was intended for the paying of respects to soldiers from the American Civil War, the focus of this day has since changed to honouring all soldiers who have died during their service, regardless of the war in which it occurred.
Like Memorial Day, Veterans Day was established in the aftermath of war that impacted heavily on the American public. Originally known as Armistice Day, Veterans Day is celebrated on the eleventh of November each year. The purpose of the day is twofold: Firstly, it was to commemorate the end of WW1 and secondly, to promote "the cause of world peace" (Stathis). The November eleventh date also coincides with other days of celebration around the world, as it is the anniversary of the official end of WW1. However, while the US may have been open to promoting peace, it was involved in further military conflicts during the twentieth century. Consequently, Armistice Day was renamed "Veterans Day" to recognise military service from all American wars, not solely WW1.
Anzac Day and Memorial Day began as an event in which citizens participated without official prompting or encouragement. In contrast to this, Veterans Day was a political construction, in that it was not necessarily already a cultural event or tradition prior to being declared a public holiday. In other words, Anzac Day and Memorial Day began as cultural events that were declared public holidays by state governments and were formalised by their federal counterparts later; Veterans Day began as a public holiday which, in turn, led to it becoming a cultural event. It is important to note, however, that both Veterans Day and Memorial Day were intended by the federal government to "encourage travel, recreational and cultural activities and stimulate greater industrial and commercial production" (Affairs, 2014)
Anzac Day's Dawn Service was initially restricted to former soldiers only, sharing in a remembered experience from their service. Equally, Memorial Day began as a day for Civil War veterans to remember and pay respects to Civil War graves. Finally, Veterans Day began in the horrific aftermath of WW1, in which the ideal of peace was to be striven towards and glorified (Stathis). However, by declaring these days to be public holidays, the governments at the time and thenceforth have implicitly encouraged the general populace's participation by declaring they are holidays in honour of a specific event or group of people. In other words, the transformation of these days into holidays was an inherently political act that directly affected previously solely cultural events of mourning and respect. Furthermore, the creation of war memorials in both countries alongside the invitation of politicians to make speeches at ceremonies indicates a uniting of politics with cultural heritage.
War memorials are traditionally sites of mourning and a place to honour soldiers who have served or have died in service. James Mayo claims "War memorials can purport identity, service, honor, and humanitarianism" (p.64) in their function as a "sacred" place. This view is further expounded in his book, War Memorials as Political Landscape, claiming war memorials to be symbolic expressions of war as a political act (pp.xvi) and war itself to be "the ultimate political conflict" (pp.1). Therefore, it is undeniable that politics and war are inextricably interlinked. Consequently, it is also clear that the Days currently under discussion directly follow on from a political act, or are cultural events derived from political events. However, it is also highly important to remember that the Days were declared holidays not only in response to the losses suffered during wartime, but also in response to the actions of the population. In other words, Anzac Day, Memorial Day, and Veterans Day are cultural events initiated by citizens in response to, or in the aftermath of, political events.
The ritualised course of events at the ceremonies or during the Day help to transform people's experiences from political into cultural. Robert Bellah argues that, within the US, these ceremonies have reached the level of a "civil religion" that is secular rather than Christian (Bellah, 2005). In essence, Bellah claims that Memorial Day is simply a "ritual expression" of the culture and heritage of the US and is a means to "to integrate the local community into the national cult" (p.10). This definition also fits neatly into Australia's Anzac Day celebrations, with the embedding of the Anzac Spirit into the general parlance and the commercialisation of the actual term "Anzac", Anzac Day and the legendary soldiers who fought at Gallipoli have become an essential part of the Australian identity.
The governments of either country also encourage or even promote the participation of people in the activities of these Days and their events. The US Congress has released several informative documents for teachers, tourists, and other participants alike aimed at educating people on the history and importance of Memorial Day and Veterans Day. Equally, the Australian Parliamentary Library has compiled an "Anzac Day Kit" (Watt, 2014) to educate participants on Anzac Day traditions and ceremonies, dedicating two sections specifically to past speeches given in the past and to memorials themselves, both overseas and domestic. The official websites for war memorials featured in the celebrations even include activities for children and teachers alike, aiming to teach children about the history of the event, and encourage them to participate in future occasions. It is again clear that governments or government-backed groups aim to encourage and grow the importance of these events within the general populace.
Anzac Day, Memorial Day, and Veterans Day are all representative of the interwoven nature of a nation's history, culture, and military. Equally, all three days are also remarkably similar in their historical growth and social acceptance. From Memorial Day's development from a honouring of Civil War soldiers through the decoration of their graves and moving of the flag from full mast to half to Anzac Day's Dawn Services and ritual recitation of "Lest We Forget", these Days are rooted firmly in the consequences of war and the idealised, phoenix or Christ-like rebirth of a nation from their bodies. So too, however, are all these Days linked to the political side of the cultural divide, with politicians rarely missed at memorial ceremonies, oftentimes giving a speech lauding the sacrifice and courage of those who fell, and the ideals and homes for which they fought.
However, it is an interesting question to ask not whether these Days have become politicised, but to ask why. In the modern era, with increased globalisation and a corresponding decrease in nationalism, it could be a natural reaction for governments to attach nationalistic meaning to these events to not only assuage their own relevance to the countries they lead but to provide a reason and guide that a citizen can use to define themselves in an increasingly undefinable society. However, the fact that these Days are inextricably connected to war and wartime activities or consequences is undeniable. That these Days are the result of an unmistakeable cultural, government-driven policy that had a profound impact of the psyche of each nation involved is unquestionable and irrefutable.